Roman fear was not exaggerated; Boudicca was a warrior Queen who, 2000 years ago, managed to gather over 120,000 of her own people and those of neighbouring tribes with a view to completely wipe out the barbaric governance and influence of Rome from what would have been every corner of ancient Briton had she succeeded. It would seem from historical and archeological evidence that she very nearly did succeed, albeit against formidable odds, and yet her epic defeat was most likely down to a lack of insight into battlefield tactics of the kind the Romans were well versed in.
The Iceni
The Iceni
(from wikipedia [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceni]):
The Iceni (
/aɪˈsiːnaɪ/) or Eceni were a British tribe who inhabited an area corresponding roughly to the modern-day county of Norfolk from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD. They were bordered by the Corieltauvi to the west, and the Catuvellauni and Trinovantes to the south.The Cenimagni, who surrendered to Julius Caesar during his second expedition to Britain in 54 BC, may have been a branch of the Iceni [1] or it could be a corruption of Iceni Magni meaning "Great Iceni".
Archaeology
Archaeological evidence of the Iceni includes torcs — heavy rings of gold, silver or electrum worn around the neck and shoulders. The Iceni began producing coins circa 10 BC. Their coins were a distinctive adaptation of the Gallo-Belgic "face/horse" design, and in some early issues, most numerous near Norwich, the horse was replaced with a boar. Some coins are inscribed ECENI, making them the only coin-producing group to use their tribal name on coins. The earliest personal name to appear on coins is Antedios (ca. 10 BC), and other abbreviated names like AESU and SAEMU follow.[2]
Sir Thomas Browne, the first English archaeological writer, said of the Roman occupation, Boudica and Iceni coins:
That Britain was notably populous is undeniable, from that expression of Caesar. That the Romans themselves were early in no small Numbers, Seventy Thousand with their associates slain by Bouadicea, affords a sure account... And no small number of silver pieces near Norwich; with a rude head upon the obverse, an ill-formed horse on the reverse, with the Inscriptions Ic. Duro.T. whether implying Iceni, Durotriges, Tascia, or Trinobantes, we leave to higher conjecture. The British Coyns afford conjecture of early habitation in these parts, though the city of Norwich arose from the ruins of Venta, and though perhaps not without some habitation before, was enlarged, built, and nominated by the Saxons.[3]The Icknield Way, an ancient trackway linking East Anglia to the Chilterns, may be named after the Iceni.
The Roman invasion
While the meaning of the name Iceni is unknown, it is tempting to see it as derived from a Proto-Celtic adjective cognate with Latin picea ‘pine tree,’ the Italic tribal name Piceni, English picene, and with the English hydronym Itchen. Icenian coins dating from the 1st century AD use the spelling ECEN [1], which probably suggests a different etymology.Tacitus records that the Iceni were not conquered in the Claudian invasion of AD 43, but had come to a voluntary alliance with the Romans. However, they rose against them in 47 after the governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula, threatened to disarm them. The Iceni were defeated by Ostorius in a fierce battle at a fortified place, but were allowed to retain their independence.[4] The site of the battle may have been Stonea Camp in Cambridgeshire.
While the governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was campaigning in Wales, Boudica led the Iceni and the neighbouring Trinovantes in a large-scale revolt, destroying and looting Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St Albans) before finally being defeated by Suetonius Paulinus and his legions. Although the Britons outnumbered the Romans greatly, they lacked the superior discipline and tactics that won the Romans a decisive victory.[5]
The battle took place at an unknown location, probably in the West Midlands somewhere along Watling Street.[6] Today, a large statue of Boudica wielding a sword and charging upon a chariot can be seen in London on the north bank of the Thames by Westminster Bridge.
After the Romans left Britain, it is possible that some of the Iceni migrated west away from the Angles into the inhospitable marshlands around The Wash known as the Fens. The possibility of this occurrence is supported by the Life of Saint Guthlac - a biography written about the East Anglian religious hermit who lived in the Fens during the early 8th century. It is stated that Saint Guthlac was attacked by people he believed were Britons living in the Fens at that time, 200 years after the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, although Bertram Colgrave in the introduction to The Life of Saint Guthlac states that is very unlikely due to the lack of evidence for British survival in the region and the fact that British placenames in the area are "very few".[10]
References
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 5.21
- ^ Graham Webster (1978), Boudica: the British Revolt Against Rome AD 60, pp. 46-48
- ^ Sir Thomas Browne (1658), Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial
- ^ Tacitus, Annals 12.31
- ^ Cambridge Latin Course Textbook, Unit 2
- ^ Agricola 14-17; Annals 14:29-39; Dio Cassius, Roman History 62:1-12
- ^ Ptolemy, Geography 2.2
- ^ Ravenna Cosmography (British section)
- ^ Antonine Itinerary (British section)
- ^ Felix's Life of St. Guthlac, Text, Translation & Notes, Bertram Colgrave (ed.) 1965, Cambridge University Press
Boudicca
Boudica ( /ˈbuːdɨkə/; alternative spelling: Boudicca), also known as Boadicea /boʊdɨˈsiːə/ and known in Welsh as Buddug [ˈbɨ̞ðɨ̞ɡ][1] (d. AD 60 or 61) was queen of the British Iceni tribe who led an uprising against the occupying forces of the Roman Empire.Boudica's husband Prasutagus, ruler of the Iceni tribe who had ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome, left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman Emperor in his will. However, when he died, his will was ignored — the kingdom was annexed as if conquered, Boudica was flogged, her daughters were raped, and Roman financiers called in their loans.
In AD 60 or 61, while the Roman governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign on the island of Anglesey in northern Wales, Boudica led the Iceni people, along with the Trinovantes and others, in revolt. They destroyed Camulodunum (modern Colchester), earlier the capital of the Trinovantes, but then a colonia (a settlement for discharged Roman soldiers) and the site of a temple to the former emperor Claudius, which was built and maintained at local expense. They also routed a Roman legion, the IX Hispana, sent to relieve the settlement.
On hearing the news of the revolt Suetonius hurried to Londinium (London), the twenty-year-old commercial settlement that was the rebels' next target. Concluding that he did not have the numbers to defend the settlement, Suetonius evacuated and abandoned it — Londinium was burnt to the ground, as was Verulamium (St Albans).
An estimated 70,000–80,000 people were killed in the three cities (though the figures are suspect).[2] Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces in the West Midlands and, despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated the Britons in the Battle of Watling Street. The crisis caused the emperor Nero to consider withdrawing all Roman forces from Britain, but Suetonius' eventual victory over Boudica re-secured Roman control of the province. Boudica then either killed herself so she would not be captured, or fell ill and died — the extant sources, Tacitus[3] and Cassius Dio,[4] differ.
Interest in the history of these events was revived during the English Renaissance and led to a resurgence of Boudica's legendary fame during the Victorian era, when Queen Victoria was portrayed as her 'namesake'. Boudica has since remained an important cultural symbol in the United Kingdom. The absence of native British literature during the early part of the first millennium means that Britain owes its knowledge of Boudica's rebellion solely to the writings of the Romans.
History
Boudica's name
Boudica has been known by several versions of her name. Raphael Holinshed calls her Voadicia, while Edmund Spenser calls her "Bunduca", a version of the name that was used in the popular Jacobean play Bonduca, in 1612.[5] William Cowper's poem, Boadicea, an ode (1782) popularised an alternate version of the name.[6]From the 19th century and much of the late 20th century, "Boadicea" was the most common version of the name, which is probably derived from a mistranscription when a manuscript of Tacitus was copied in the Middle Ages. Her name was clearly spelled Boudicca in the best manuscripts of Tacitus, but also Βουδουικα, Βουνδουικα, and Βοδουικα in the (later and probably secondary) epitome of Cassius Dio.
The name is attested in inscriptions as "Boudica" in Lusitania, "Boudiga" in Bordeaux, and "Bodicca" in Algeria.[7] Kenneth Jackson concludes, based on later development of Welsh and Irish, that it derives from the Proto-Celtic feminine adjective *boudīka, "victorious", derived from the Celtic word *bouda, "victory" (cf. Irish bua (Classical Irish buadh), Buaidheach, Welsh buddugoliaeth), and that the correct spelling of the name in the British language is Boudica, pronounced [bɒʊˈdiːkaː] (the closest English equivalent to the vowel in the first syllable is the ow in "bow-and-arrow").[8] The modern English pronunciation is /ˈbuːdɪkə/.[9] It is suggested that the most comparable English name would be "Victoria".[10]
Background
Her husband, Prasutagus, was the king of Iceni, people who inhabited roughly what is now Norfolk. They initially were not part of the territory under direct Roman control, having voluntarily allied themselves to Rome following Claudius' conquest of AD 43. They were proud of their independence and had revolted in AD 47 when the then-governor Publius Ostorius Scapula threatened to disarm them.[12]
Prasutagus had lived a long life of conspicuous wealth and, hoping to preserve his line, made the Roman emperor co-heir to his kingdom, along with his wife and two daughters. It was normal Roman practice to allow allied kingdoms their independence only for the lifetime of their client king, who would agree to leave his kingdom to Rome in his will — the provinces of Bithynia[13] and Galatia,[14] for example, were incorporated into the Empire in just this way. Roman law also allowed inheritance only through the male line, so when Prasutagus died his attempts to preserve his line were ignored and his kingdom was annexed as if it had been conquered; lands and property were confiscated and nobles treated like slaves.
According to Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters were raped. Cassius Dio says that Roman financiers, including Seneca the Younger, chose this time to call in their loans. Tacitus does not mention this, but does single out the procurator, Catus Decianus, for criticism for his "avarice". Prasutagus, it seems, had lived well on borrowed Roman money, and on his death his subjects had become liable for the debt.
Boudica's uprising
In AD 60 or 61, while the current governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign against the island of Mona (modern Anglesey) in the north of Wales, which was a refuge for British rebels and a stronghold of the druids, the Iceni conspired with their neighbours the Trinovantes, amongst others, to revolt. Boudica was chosen as their leader. According to Tacitus, they drew inspiration from the example of Arminius, the prince of the Cherusci who had driven the Romans out of Germany in AD 9, and their own ancestors who had driven Julius Caesar from Britain.[15]Dio says that at the outset Boudica employed a form of divination, releasing a hare from the folds of her dress and interpreting the direction in which it ran, and invoked Andraste, a British goddess of victory.
The rebels' first target was Camulodunum (Colchester), the former Trinovantian capital and, at that time, a Roman colonia. The Roman veterans who had been settled there mistreated the locals and a temple to the former emperor Claudius had been erected there at local expense, making the city a focus for resentment. The Roman inhabitants sought reinforcements from the procurator, Catus Decianus, but he sent only two hundred auxiliary troops.
Boudica's army fell on the poorly defended city and destroyed it, besieging the last defenders in the temple for two days before it fell. Archaeologists have shown that the city was methodically demolished.[16] The future governor Quintus Petillius Cerialis, then commanding the Legio IX Hispana, attempted to relieve the city, but suffered an overwhelming defeat. His infantry was wiped out — only the commander and some of his cavalry escaped. The location of this famous battle is now claimed by some to be the village of Great Wratting, in Suffolk, which lies in the Stour Valley on the Icknield Way West of Colchester, and by a village in Essex.[17] After this defeat, Catus Decianus fled to Gaul.
When news of the rebellion reached him, Suetonius hurried along Watling Street through hostile territory to Londinium. Londinium was a relatively new settlement, founded after the conquest of 43AD, but it had grown to be a thriving commercial centre with a population of travellers, traders, and, probably, Roman officials. Suetonius considered giving battle there, but considering his lack of numbers and chastened by Petillius's defeat, decided to sacrifice the city to save the province.
...Alarmed by this disaster and by the fury of the province which he had goaded into war by his rapacity, the procurator Catus crossed over into Gaul. Suetonius, however, with wonderful resolution, marched amidst a hostile population to Londinium, which, though undistinguished by the name of a colony, was much frequented by a number of merchants and trading vessels. Uncertain whether he should choose it as a seat of war, as he looked round on his scanty force of soldiers, and remembered with what a serious warning the rashness of Petilius had been punished, he resolved to save the province at the cost of a single town. Nor did the tears and weeping of the people, as they implored his aid, deter him from giving the signal of departure and receiving into his army all who would go with him. Those who were chained to the spot by the weakness of their sex, or the infirmity of age, or the attractions of the place, were cut off by the enemy. - Tacitus[2]Londinium was abandoned to the rebels who burnt it down, slaughtering anyone who had not evacuated with Suetonius. Archaeology shows a thick red layer of burnt debris covering coins and pottery dating before 60 AD within the bounds of Roman Londinium.[18] Verulamium (St Albans) was next to be destroyed.
In the three settlements destroyed, between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed. Tacitus says that the Britons had no interest in taking or selling prisoners, only in slaughter by gibbet, fire, or cross. Dio's account gives more detail; that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn to their mouths, "to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour" in sacred places, particularly the groves of Andraste.
Romans rally
See also: Battle of Watling Street
Suetonius took a stand at an unidentified location, probably in the West Midlands somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street, in a defile with a wood behind him — but his men were heavily outnumbered. Dio says that, even if they were lined up one deep, they would not have extended the length of Boudica's line. By now the rebel forces were said to have numbered 230,000, however, this number should be treated with scepticism — Dio's account is known only from a late epitome, and ancient sources commonly exaggerate enemy numbers.
Boudica exhorted her troops from her chariot, her daughters beside her. Tacitus gives her a short speech in which she presents herself not as an aristocrat avenging her lost wealth, but as an ordinary person, avenging her lost freedom, her battered body, and the abused chastity of her daughters. She said their cause was just, and the deities were on their side; the one legion that had dared to face them had been destroyed. She, a woman, was resolved to win or die; if the men wanted to live in slavery, that was their choice.
However, the lack of manoeuvrability of the British forces, combined with lack of open-field tactics to command these numbers, put them at a disadvantage to the Romans, who were skilled at open combat due to their superior equipment and discipline. Also, the narrowness of the field meant that Boudica could put forth only as many troops as the Romans could at a given time.
First, the Romans stood their ground and used volleys of pila (heavy javelins) to kill thousands of Britons who were rushing toward the Roman lines. The Roman soldiers, who had now used up their pila, were then able to engage Boudica's second wave in the open. As the Romans advanced in a wedge formation, the Britons attempted to flee, but were impeded by the presence of their own families, whom they had stationed in a ring of wagons at the edge of the battlefield, and were slaughtered. This is not the first instance of this tactic — the women of the Cimbri, in the Battle of Vercellae against Gaius Marius, were stationed in a line of wagons and acted as a last line of defence.[22] Ariovistus of the Suebi is reported to have done the same thing in his battle against Julius Caesar.[23] Tacitus reports that "according to one report almost eighty thousand Britons fell" compared with only four hundred Romans.
According to Tacitus in his Annals, Boudica poisoned herself, though in the Agricola which was written almost twenty years prior he mentions nothing of suicide and attributes the end of the revolt to socordiam indolence; Dio says she fell sick and died and then was given a lavish burial; though this may be a convenient way to remove her from the story. Considering Dio must have read Tacitus, it is worth noting he mentions nothing about suicide (which was also how Postumus and Nero ended their lives).
Postumus, on hearing of the Roman victory, fell on his sword. Catus Decianus, who had fled to Gaul, was replaced by Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus. Suetonius conducted punitive operations, but criticism by Classicianus led to an investigation headed by Nero's freedman Polyclitus. Fearing Suetonius' actions would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced the governor with the more conciliatory Publius Petronius Turpilianus.[24] The historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain.[25]
Location of her defeat
The location of Boudica's defeat is unknown. Most historians favour a site in the West Midlands, somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street. Kevin K. Carroll suggests a site close to High Cross in Leicestershire, on the junction of Watling Street and the Fosse Way, which would have allowed the Legio II Augusta, based at Exeter, to rendezvous with the rest of Suetonius's forces, had they not failed to do so.[26] Manduessedum (Mancetter), near the modern town of Atherstone in Warwickshire, has also been suggested,[27] as has 'The Rampart' near Messing in Essex, according to legend.[28]More recently, a discovery of Roman artefacts in Kings Norton close to Metchley Camp has suggested another possibility,[29] and a thorough examination of a stretch of Watling Street between St. Albans, Boudica's last known location, and the Fosse Way junction has suggested the Cuttle Mill area of Paulerspury in Northamptonshire, which has topography very closely matching that described by Tacitus of the scene of the battle.[30] In March 2010 evidence was published suggesting the site may be located at Church Stowe, Northamptonshire.[31]
Historical sources
Tacitus, the most important Roman historian of this period, took a particular interest in Britain as Gnaeus Julius Agricola, his father-in-law and the subject of his first book, served there three times. Agricola was a military tribune under Suetonius Paulinus, which almost certainly gave Tacitus an eyewitness source for Boudica's revolt. Cassius Dio's account is only known from an epitome, and his sources are uncertain. He is generally agreed to have based his account on that of Tacitus, but he simplifies the sequence of events and adds details, such as the calling in of loans, that Tacitus does not mention.Gildas, in his 6th century De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, may have been alluding to Boudica when he wrote "A treacherous lioness butchered the governors who had been left to give fuller voice and strength to the endeavours of Roman rule."[32]
Cultural depictions
History and literature
By the Middle Ages Boudica was forgotten. She makes no appearance in Bede's work, the Historia Brittonum, the Mabinogion or Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain. But the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus during the Renaissance allowed Polydore Virgil to reintroduce her into British history as "Voadicea" in 1534.[33] Raphael Holinshed also included her story in his Chronicles (1577), based on Tacitus and Dio,[34] and inspired Shakespeare's younger contemporaries Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher to write a play, Bonduca, in 1610.[5] William Cowper wrote a popular poem, "Boadicea, an ode," in 1782.[6]It was in the Victorian era that Boudica's fame took on legendary proportions as Queen Victoria was seen to be Boudica's "namesake." Victoria's Poet Laureate, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, wrote a poem, "Boadicea,"[35] and several ships were named after her. A great bronze statue of Boudica with her daughters in her war chariot (furnished with scythes after the Persian fashion) was commissioned by Prince Albert and executed by Thomas Thornycroft. It was completed in 1905 and stands next to Westminster Bridge and the Houses of Parliament, with the following lines from Cowper's poem, referring to the British Empire:
Ironically, the great anti-imperialist rebel was now identified with the head of the British Empire, and her statue[36] stood guard over the city she razed to the ground.[37]Regions Caesar never knew
Thy posterity shall sway.
In more recent times, Boudica has been the subject of numerous documentaries, including some by Discovery Channel, History International Channel (now known as H2), and the BBC.
Boudica and King's Cross
The area of King's Cross, London was previously a village known as Battle Bridge which was an ancient crossing of the River Fleet. The original name of the bridge was Broad Ford Bridge.The name "Battle Bridge" led to a tradition that this was the site of a major battle between the Romans and the Iceni tribe led by Boudica.[38] The tradition is not supported by any historical evidence and is rejected by modern historians. However Lewis Spence's 1937 book Boadicea - warrior queen of the Britons went so far as to include a map showing the positions of the opposing armies. There is a belief that she was buried between platforms 9 and 10 in King's Cross station in London, England. There is no evidence for this and it is probably a post World War II invention.[39]
Fiction/Music/Film
Henry Purcell's last major work, composed in 1695, was music for play entitled Bonduca, or the British Heroine (Z. 574). Selections include "To Arms," "Britons, Strike Home," and "O lead me to some peaceful gloom." Boudica has also been the primary subject of songs by Irish singer/songwriter Enya, Dutch soprano Petra Berger, Scottish singer/songwriter Steve McDonald, English metal band Bal-Sagoth, Faith and the Muse and Dreams in the Witching House.Boudica has been the subject of two feature films, the 1928 film Boadicea, where she was portrayed by Phyllis Neilson-Terry,[40] and 2003's Boudica (Warrior Queen in the US), a UK TV film written by Andrew Davies and starring Alex Kingston as Boudica.[41] She has also been the subject of a 1978 British TV series, Warrior Queen, starring Siân Phillips as Boudica. Jennifer Ward-Lealand portrayed Boudica in an episode of Xena - Warrior Princess titled "The Deliverer" in 1997.
The Viking Queen is a 1967 Hammer Films adventure film set in ancient Britain, in which the role of Queen Salina is based upon the historical figure of Boudica.
In the fictional world of Ghosts of Albion, Queen Bodicea is one of three Ghosts who once were mystical protectors of Albion and assists the current protectors with advice and knowledge.
Boudica's story is the subject of several novels, including books by Rosemary Sutcliff, Roxanne Gregory, Pauline Gedge, Manda Scott, Alan Gold, Diana L. Paxson, David Wishart, George Shipway, Simon Scarrow and J. F. Broxholme (a pseudonym of Duncan Kyle). She plays a central role in the first part of G. A. Henty's novel Beric the Briton and in a children's novel by Henry Treece.
One of the viewpoint characters of Ian Watson's novel Oracle is an eyewitness to her defeat. She has also appeared in several comic book series, including the Sláine, which featured two runs, titled "Demon Killer" and "Queen of Witches" giving a free interpretation of Boudica's story. Other comic appearances include Witchblade and From Hell.
The DC Comics character Boodikka, a member of the Green Lantern Corps, was named after by Boudica. Additionally, in the alternate history novel Ruled Britannia by Harry Turtledove, Boudicca is the subject of a play written by William Shakespeare to incite the people of Britain to revolt against Spanish conquerors.
Boudicca is a character in the animated series Gargoyles.[42]
The 2012 Big Finish Productions Doctor Who audio play The Wrath of the Iceni starring Tom Baker takes place during Boudica's uprising against the Romans. Boudica is portrayed by British actress Ella Kenion.[43]
In Civilization V: Gods & Kings, Boudicca is the leader of the Celtic tribe.
Queen Boadicea features in the opening lyrics of the song "The Good Old Days" written by Pete Doherty and Carl Barat for British rock band The Libertines from their 2002 album "Up the bracket", the line reads, "If Queen Boadicea is long dead and gone, Still then the spirit in her children's children's children, it lives on".
Other cultural references
In 2003, an LTR retrotransposon from the genome of the human blood fluke "Schistosoma mansoni" was named "Boudicca."[44] The Boudicca retrotransposon, a high-copy retroviral-like element, was the first mobile genetic element of this type to be discovered in S. mansoni.In July 2008, the UK Television series Bonekickers, dedicated an hour to Boudica in the episode named "The Eternal Fire."[45] Various female politicians, including former Prime Minister of New Zealand, Helen Clark, have been called Boadicea.[46]
References
- ^ Davies, John (1993). A History of Wales. London: Penguin. pp. 28. ISBN 0-14-014581-8.
- ^ a b Tacitus, Annals 14.33
- ^ Tacitus, Agricola 14-16; Annals 14:29-39
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History .html#1 62:1-12
- ^ a b Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, Bonduca
- ^ a b William Cowper, Boadicea, an ode
- ^ Graham Webster, Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60, 1978; Guy de la Bédoyère, The Roman Army in Britain. Retrieved 5 July 2005
- ^ Kenneth Jackson, "Queen Boudica?", Britannia 10, 1979
- ^ Boudicca. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. (Retrieved 20 December 2007).
- ^ Rhys, Sir John. 1908. General Literature Committee: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (Great Britain). Early Britain, Celtic Britain. p. 284. [1]
- ^ The term xanthotrichos translated in this passage as red-brown or tawny can also mean auburn, or a shade short of brown, but most translators now agree a colour in between light and browny red - tawny -Boudica and her stories: narrative transformations of a warrior queen, Carolyn D. Williams, University of Delaware Press, 2009, p. 62.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals 12:31-32
- ^ H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, 1982, p. 90
- ^ John Morris, Londinium: London in the Roman Empire, 1982, pp. 107-108
- ^ Tacitus, Agricola 15
- ^ Jason Burke, "Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak", The Observer, 3 December 2000
- ^ "Haverhill From the Iron Age to 1899". St. Edmundsbury Borough Council. http://www.stedmundsbury.gov.uk/sebc/visit/hh-to-1899.cfm.
- ^ George Patrick Welch, Britannia: The Roman Conquest & Occupation of Britain, 1963, p. 107.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals 14.34
- ^ Tacitus, Annals 14.37
- ^ Tacitus, Annals 14.32
- ^ Florus, Epitome of Roman History 1.38
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 1.51
- ^ Tacitus, Annals 14.39
- ^ Suetonius, Nero 18, 39-40
- ^ Kevin K. Carroll, "The Date of Boudicca's Revolt", Britannia 10, 1979
- ^ Sheppard Frere, Britannia: A History of Roman Britain, 1987, p. 73
- ^ Messing-cum-Inworth Community Website: Messing Village
- ^ Is Boudicca buried in Birmingham?, BBC, 25 May 2006. Retrieved 9 September 2006
- ^ Battlefield Britain (BBC). "The Rebellion of Boudicca" (2004), Paulerspury website [2]
- ^ "Landscape Analysis and Appraisal Church Stowe, Northamptonshire, as a Candidate Site for the Battle of Watling Street, by craft:pegg"
- ^ Hingley, Richard; Christina Unwin, Boudica: Iron Age Warrior Queen # Hambledon Continuum; New Ed edition (15 June 2006) ISBN 978-1-85285-516-1 p.61 [3]
- ^ Polydore Vergil's English History Book 2 (pp. 69-72).
- ^ Raphael Holinshed, Chronicles: History of England 4.9-13
- ^ Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Boadicea
- ^ Corinne Field (30 April 2006). "Battlefield Britain—Boudicca's revolt against the Romans". Culture24. http://www.culture24.org.uk/history+%2526+heritage/war+%2526+conflict/pre%252d20th+century+conflict/tra22669. Retrieved 8 December 2009.
- ^ Graham Webster, Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60, 1978
- ^ Walter Thornbury (1878). "Highbury, Upper Holloway and King's Cross". Old and New London: Volume 2. British History Online. pp. 273–279. http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=45097. Retrieved 11 November 2010.
- ^ "THE "WARRIOR QUEEN" UNDER PLATFORM 9". British Museum. http://web.archive.org/web/20090301192533/http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/Learning/Learningonline/features/roman/roman_london_7.htm. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
- ^ Boadicea (1928)
- ^ Boudica (2003)
- ^ Boudicca at The Gargoyles Encyclopedia.
- ^ The Wrath of the Iceni at bigfinish.com.
- ^ Copeland CS, Brindley PJ, Heyers O, Michael SF, Johnston DA, Williams DL, Ivens AC, Kalinna BH, "Boudica, a retrovirus-like long terminal repeat retrotransposon from the genome of the human blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni". Journal of Virology 2003 Jun;77(11):6153-66; Copeland CS, Heyers O, Kalinna BH, Bachmair A, Stadler PF, Hofacker IL, Brindley PJ, "Structural and evolutionary analysis of the transcribed sequence of Boudicca, a Schistosoma mansoni retrotransposon". Gene 2004;329:103-114.
- ^ "The Eternal Fire" on IMDB
- ^ O'Sullivan, Fran (30 October 2008). "Gladiator v Boadicea: No contest?". The New Zealand Herald. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10540015. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
Further reading
- Aldhouse-Green, M., Boudica Britannia: Rebel, War-Leader and Queen (Harlow, Pearson Longman, 2006).
- Böckl, Manfred (2005) (in German). Die letzte Königin der Kelten [The last Queen of the Celts]. Berlin: Aufbau Verlag.
- Cassius Dio Cocceianus (1914-1927). Dio's Roman History. 8. Earnest Cary trans. Cambridge, MA: Halvard University Press. http://www.archive.org/details/diosromanhistory08cassuoft.
- Collingridge, Vanessa (2004). Boudica. London: Ebury.
- de la Bédoyère, Guy (2003). "Bleeding from the Roman Rods: Boudica". Defying Rome: The Rebels of Roman Britain. Tempus: Stroud.
- Dudley, Donald R; Webster, Graham (1962). The Rebellion of Boudicca. London: Routledge.
- Fraser, Antonia (1988). The Warrior Queens. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
- Godsell, Andrew (2008). "Boadicea: A Woman's Resolve". Legends of British History. Wessex Publishing.
- Hingley, Richard; Unwin, Christina (2004). Boudica: Iron Age Warrior Queen. London: Hambledon and London.
- Roesch, Joseph E. (2006). Boudica, Queen of The Iceni. London: Robert Hale Ltd.
- Tacitus, Cornelius (1948). Tacitus on Britain and Germany. H. Mattingly trans. London: Penguin.
- Tacitus, Cornelius (1989). The Annals of Imperial Rome. M. Grant trans. London: Penguin.
- Taylor, John (1998). Tacitus and the Boudican Revolt. Dublin: Camvlos.
- Webster, Graham (1978). Boudica. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.
- Cottrell, Leonard (1958). The Great Invasion. Evans Brothers Limited.
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